Development of Museology

Development of Museology – Historical Perspective

Museology

1. Introduction

At the very beginning it is imperative to be sure about what is Museology after all? Is it a

science, is it a separate discipline or is it a professional field of knowledge? Is Museology

Science or Just Practical Work? Or as Wilcomb Washburn (1967) titled sarcastically his

article Grandmotherology and Museology? Does it mean that anyone working in a museum

would automatically be a museologist, since it involves the activities of, rather inside a

museum? It has indeed become a very common word in the museum circle. A very vocal

refrain, openly droned by museum professionals is that museum theory is nonsense and

irrelevant; practice is the answer. Another very common perception, as G Ellis Burcaw

(1975) pointed out, is the tacit conclusion that there is no museum profession, no such thing

as museology and consequently, no need for general museum training.

2. Emergence of Museology as an Independent Discipline

Plethora of terms like, museology, museum studies, museography, museum science,

museum technology, museum technique, museum practice, critical museology, neomuseology,

new museology, ecomuseology, integrated museology, museumkunde, etc.,

were flung around freely in different circles and countries to express the theory and practice

of museum work, in a number of different and often contradictory ways.

The word museology was initially used to denote the study of the theory of museum

operation, while the techniques and practice of museum activities were referred as

museography; though the latter has become effectively redundant, except in some text

books, since the former is generally used to express both the theory and practice of museum

work.

Geoffrey Lewis wrote in 1980 on the evolution of Museology, If museology as a term has a

respectable history, this cannot be said of the subject itself. Sufficient has been said to show

that not only does the scientific base of museum work appear to be on shaky foundations but

also at least some museum workers have been saying so for a very long time; few have

done anything about it...We should have no further cause to debate whether museology is a

subject in its own right; rather we should urgently lay the theoretical framework on which it,

and the museum movement as a whole can develop.

Jiri Neustupny, defined museology, as early in 1950, as the theoretical aspects of museum

work, consisting of, scientific research and collecting, educational activities, conservation,

exhibitions, theory and technique. Neustupny also conceptualised special museology, which

consists of the application of subject disciplines to museum work as an applied science

serving museum needs. It may be noted that the museology departments in the Indian

universities grossly follow this concept.

The UNESCO Regional Seminar in Education held at Rio de Janeiro in 1958, attempted to

codify definitions of museology as a branch of knowledge concerned with the study of the

purposes and organizations of museums. The statement was reaffirmed in 1962 at the Fifth

Regional Museum Seminar in Mexico City.

The examinations of the training for the museum profession by the ICOM International

Committee for Administration and Personnel during 1956 to 1965, culminated in the 1965

ICOM General Conference resolution that curators (meaning anyone involved with

collections in the broadest sense) should be trained in museology by a post-graduate

degree, internship or a type of basic training through seminars, workshops, etc.

In 1969, in a paper in the UNESCO International Symposium on Museums in the

Contemporary World, Paris, George Henri Rivière stressed on the need for research on

museology as a discipline designed to establish definite relations between museums, on the

one hand, and between science, culture and society, on the other. He further analysed that,

Museology was essentially synthetic in character, covering as it did a number of activities,

which varied from one museum to another and from one country to another. Hitherto no

large-scale endeavour had been made at the international level to systematize the theories

and standards outlined in different countries, with a view to their adaptation to the various

cultures and to the requirements of all museums. Such an endeavour must be made,

because the need for a specialized museological training was universally felt and that

training should be practical as well as theoretical.

In the publication, entitled, Professional Training of Museum Personnel in the World: Actual

State of the Problem, 1972, it was stated that Museology is museum science. It has to do

with the study of history and background of museums, their role in society, specific systems

for research, conservation, education and organization, relationship with the physical

environment, and the classification of different kinds of museums. Museography covers

methods and practices in the operation of museums, in all their various aspects.

R Singleton (1969) emphasized that A curator needs to be trained partly as an historian (or

art historian, or natural historian, or whatever his particular subject may be) in order to be

able to study and appreciate his material; partly (whatever his speciality) as a scientist, to

understand the physical care of his collections: partly as a technician to show how to present

and to display them effectively: partly as a philosopher, to show why he is displaying them or

storing them or conserving them; partly as an educationalist to be able to interpret and

explain; partly as a showman, to attract and hold his visitors' attention; partly as an

administrator and manager, to be able to organize his institution or department efficiently.

Z Stransky, 1974, added another very interesting dimension to the core of museology as the

human activity of conserving against natural decay certain objects and creations which

represent for man certain values closely linked with his humanisation.

The view that museology is based on man's relationship with reality as expressed by many,

especially Stransky, may be an outgrowth of the German schools of philosophy and Marxian

thought, gave rise to many interesting developments.

Two other forms of museology should be mentioned here – critical museology and neomuseology/

new museology, both of them were proposed in the middle of the seventh

decade of the last century; the former was introduced at the Reinwardt Academy in Leiden,

Holland, while the latter was coined by George Henri Rivière and other French-Canadian

museologists. Critical Museology emphasises museum as a process, not as a static

institution. Neo-museology deals with the museum-like activities of society, which occur

beyond the traditional institution of the museum, represented by eco-museums, open-air

museums and so on. Both the terms have lost relevance, except for some academic

debates, since all the premises on which the concepts were based upon, are being taken

care of well by the existing terminologies.

3. Recent Developments

The pressures of globalization have changed the socio-economic, political and cultural

milieu. There has been a need to develop new museum audiences in order to cope up with a

paradigm shift that necessitates to redefine museums as contact zones, an expression,

which J Clifford defines as an attempt to invoke the spatial and temporal co-presence of

subjects previously separated by geographic and historical disjunctures, and whose

trajectories now intersect. The heritage institutions, like other arts and culture institutions

throughout the world are confronted with the challenges of survival. This has had a catalytic

effect on heritage institutions and museums in particular, and has galvanized them into

action in search of a new identity – an identity that recognizes that Cultural diversity is a

historical and social reality at the local, regional, national and global levels and museums

should reflect the cultural diversity of the clientele communities (VusithembaNdima, 2002).

There has been another parallel paradigm shift in thinking of the primary commodity of the

museum as information rather than artefacts. The advantages include firstly, the intangible

processes of culture (such as oral histories or processes of investigation and scholarship),

and replicas and reconstructions can be considered of equal value to artefacts. Further,

even by promoting the status of information the significance of the material objects is not

compromised. Secondly, it positions the museum as an organisation of status in an

information economy and society. This will ensure the survival of the museum. Thirdly, in the

shift from artefact to information based museums, it will be easier to balance the traditional

functions of collection, preservation, research and display, with the more recent mandate for

education and communication. There are other modes of the museum that are equally

important that include museum as symbol, vision, showcase, treasure-house, memory,

communicator, mentor, celebration, host and resource (Sarah Kenderdine).

In an interesting development, the Report of the Working Group on Cross Cultural Issues of

the ICOM, 1997, elaborates on several key issues central to the museums, like, cultural

diversity, pluralism, minorities, ethnicity, gender, socio-economic status, age, physical ability,

etc., and called for extending the Definition of Museum and more importantly for

development of Inclusive Museology that would include inter-cultural and cross-cultural

issues.

Another very interesting turn of event has been the Total Museology, taken place at the new

museum, opened on 23 September 2004, Museo de la Ciencia de la Fundación “la Caixa”,

Barcelona. It makes stimulation as its ideal function and tries to use museum as a tool for

change, for individual change and, therefore, for social change too. Total Museology aims to

invent a new museography: museography with objects that are real but able to express

themselves in a triply interactive way: manually interactive (“hands on” in today’s museum

jargon), mentally interactive (“mind on”) and culturally interactive (“heart on”). They are

objects that tell stories that talk to each other and to the visitor. They are objects with

associated events, living objects, objects that change. It is one thing to exhibit a sedimentary

rock on its own and another to associate an experiment that shows the process in real time

of how the rock was formed (Wagensberg, 2005). It strives to define real object and as usual

include the cross-section of the society in its client community.

A training programme had been conducted between 24th& 28thApril 2006, named Towards a

Total Museology, at the CosmoCaixa, Barcelona. As a potential tool it included Scenography

in the training schedule. Scenography is the art of perspective representation especially as

applied to the design and painting of stage scenery; the word is of Greek origin (skini,

meaning stage and grafo, meaning to write or to describe), meaning to describe something

on stage. More recently, the word is also used in place of museography, the art of designing

museum and exhibition sets. The term, Scenography, of late become very popular in UK and

eastern European countries.

No doubt, whether recognised by the professionals or not, there is a subject of study based

on the museum and its purposes, i.e. Museology; may be the subject, theory, structure, and

inner logic are not very clearly defined, despite having been so many definitions and

theoretical interpretations.

4. Museology – a Professional Discipline

Museology is an academic discipline and practising profession, which endeavours to find the

theoretical basis of museum work in particular, heritage institutions in general, aiming at a

further development and improvement of activities of museums and heritage institutions, not

only on the basis of experience but first and foremost on theory. Theory and methodology

are the foundations of all aspects of museology. It is a process, essence of which is the

analysis of the idea, purposes, social, economic and cultural roles of the museums in a

broader sense. It is the action of housing this objectified reality in a social institution, and

presenting the natural or man-made object or its symbol, for an audience, to communicate

the associated (interpretative) value – aesthetic, sanctity, curiosity, entertainment, or

scientific.

With the museums, museology must also ponder over the paradigm shift to put more

emphasis on the intangible components to supplement the gaps in the storyline, to stress

upon information and to be holistic in approach. Museology, may be redefined as, the

philosophy of visual interpretation of heritage, be it cultural, natural or scientific (Chanda,

2008).

5. Developments in India

Necessity for adequate training for proper museum management in India felt long back since

1907. Government of India stressed on the need for advanced museum training again in

1912. Markham and Hargreaves Report on Indian Museums (1936) highlighted the

requirement of professional training. In 1937, All India Museums Conference elaborated

upon such training modalities. Sir Leonard Woolley (1939) too emphasized upon staff

training. All culminated in starting Museology courses in university level, first in 1952 at

Baroda and in 1959 at Calcutta. The UNESCO deputed Professor Philip Rawson to study

the Museology courses in India. The famous Rawson Report on Museology, 1965

(UNESCO), praised the pioneering effort by saying that, “India is leading the world in the

university training of museology students. The post graduate university course first at Baroda

and then at Calcutta, has set a notable precedent...”

The major University Museology Departments in India are in the Maharaja Sayajirao

University, Baroda (Vadodara), Gujarat; University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal;

Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh; Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar

Pradesh; National Museum Institute for History of Art, Conservation and Museology, New

Delhi and RabindraBharati University, Kolkata, West Bengal.

Following the successes of the Museology Courses of mainly the former three University

Departments, the renowned Birla Institute of Technology & Science (BITS), Pilani,

Rajasthan, started an MSc (Tech) in Museum Studies to cater to the needs of the growing

sector of science & technology museums and science centres. Unfortunately the Course has

been discontinued. PrachyaNiketan, Bhopal used to offer Post Graduate Diploma in

Museology under the affiliation of the Barkatullah University of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh,

which is also discontinued. The North Bengal University, Darjeeling, West Bengal too started

a six-month Diploma in Museum Studies, but stopped after two sessions. Post Graduate

Diploma in Museum Studies initiated by the State Institute of Archaeology, Art History,

Conservation and Museology (SIAACM), Tripunithura, Kerala, under the affiliation of the

Cochin University of Science & Technology, Kochi, did not run as well. The Birla Institute of

Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani, Rajasthan, in association with the National Council

of Science Museums (NCSM), India, and the Smithsonian Institute, Washington DC has

started an off-campus Master of Science (MS) Course in Science Communication that uses

Museology components in their syllabi.

In recent years, some other centres have come up for training Museology at different levels,

either directly offering Museology as main subject of teaching or incorporating Museology in

other related subjects like Archaeology, Archival Studies, Tourism or Heritage Studies.

Some of these courses are Master of Arts in Museology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, Madhya

Pradesh; Post Graduate Diploma in Museology, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Andhra

Pradesh; Post Graduate Diploma in Museology, Vikram University, Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh;

Post Graduate Diploma Course in Museology, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Maharashtra;

Advanced Diploma in Archaeology and Museology, Union Christian College, Ernakulam,

Kerala; Post Graduate Diploma in Museology, Tourism and Heritage (MTH), The University

of Mysore, Karnataka; Post Graduate Diploma in Museology & Tourism, Tilkamanjhi

Bhagalpur University, Bihar; Post Graduate Diploma in Archival Studies and Museology in Dr

B R Ambedkar University, Agra, Uttar Pradesh; Post Graduate Diploma in Travel and

Tourism and Cultural Heritage, Indira Kala Sangit University, Rajnandgaon, Chhattisgarh;

BA in Archaeology and Museology, HemwatiNandanBahugunaGarhwal University,

PauriGarhwal, Uttarakhand; BA in Museology, Madras Christian College, Chennai, Tamil

Nadu; BA in Archaeology and Museology, Assumption College, Changanacherry, Kerala; BA

in Museology, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh;

Certificate Course in Museology in Gauhati University, Assam; Post Graduate Diploma

Programme in Museology and Conservation, Institute of Museology & Conservation of the

ChhatrapatiShivajiMaharajVastuSangrahalaya (formerly Prince of Wales Museum of

Western India), Mumbai; etc. Besides above, few more institutions, like the Delhi Institute of

Heritage Research & Management, offer training in conservation, including architectural

conservation, disaster management, archaeology and heritage studies, using Museology as

one of the course components.

6. Comparative Study on the major Museology Courses in India

The specialty of the post-graduate Museology courses in Indian universities historically had

been the equal emphasis on the theory & practice of the core museological principles, as

well as, on the application of basic academic disciplines.The Maharaja Sayajirao University

of Baroda is the First University in India to start a Museology Department under the Faculty

of Fine Arts in 1952, first as one-year PG Diploma Course followed by a two-year PG

Diploma and finally MA (Fine) degree from 1978. The Course Contents Stress upon

Museum Training that is apparent from the theoretical and practical papers. TheDepartment

of Museology of the University of Calcutta (1959) was second such after the Maharaja

Sayajirao University of Baroda, started with a two-year P G Diploma, upgraded to MA/ MSc

degree from 1972. The thrust areas and strong points of the two-year four-semester

curriculum have throughout been on the equal emphases on the application as well as on

the theoretical foundation. The Department trains the students to have multidisciplinary

approach and acquire multi-tasking ability to cope up with the challenging global situation.

Unlike other Museology Courses in India, the University of Calcutta Course does not stress

upon museum training only. It approaches the subject on an holistic manner and is definitely

an Inclusive one.The Museology Department of the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, is

the third one after Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda and the University of Calcutta,

started under the aegis of Bharat Kala Bhavan, offering MA in Museology. The course

content clearly stresses on Museum Training specifically for the Art and Archaeology

Museums. Aligarh Muslim University offered P G Diploma and Post-MSc Diploma in

Museology for quite a long time. Only in 2004 it started a two-year four-semester MSc in

Museology, under the Faculty of Life Sciences. This Course also stresses on Museum

Training mainly for Natural History Museums. National Museum Institute of History of Art,

Conservation and Museology, New Delhi, is a deemed to be University was set up in 1989

and started offering MA degrees in History of Art, Conservation and Museology. The MA in

Museology is a four-semester course that can be completed in two to five years. Being

situated within the National Museum, obviously the thrust is on Museum Training.

RabindraBharati University, Kolkata, Started a Self-financed two-year, four-semester, MA in

Museology Course in 2004. The Course stresses on Core Museology Subjects and relevant

Academic Subjects as specialization.

7. Museums and Museology

It is true that Museology originated within the periphery of museum, but it has long

surpassed its creator. Museology has definitely emerged as an independent discipline

resting on firm foundation of distinct philosophy and application. Museology is a very potent

tool not only to refine museum functions based on the theoretical analysis, but also for many

broad-based applications. Its horizon is very wide. Museology demands interdisciplinary

aptitudes and highly developed multi-tasking skills. A properly-trained Museologist, among

many other things, could be a very efficient Curator, an expert Exhibitor, a very competent

organiser of data & information, a good Communicator & Interpreter, an able Visualiser, an

effective Educator, a competent Copy-writer, a fairly good preventive Conservator and above

all a very good Manager specialised in Public Relations, Marketing & Administration; though

the reverse may not necessarily be true. Museology has as much relationship with the

museums as Zoology has got that with the zoos, not more than that. Museums do need

museologists for desired functioning, may not be essentially the other way round.

Unfortunately the concerned departments are reluctant to recognise the importance and

relevance of the subject and grossly failed to appreciate, rather utilise, its potentiality.

8. Summary

It is quite clear from the above discussions that India offers Museology courses of high

standards and of different varieties conforming to the ICOM Curriculum Guidelines as well as

the model curriculum developed by the University Grants Commission (UGC) of India. UGC

conducts National Eligibility Test (NET), along with other academic subjects, for Lectureship

and Research Fellowships in Museology & Conservation. The University of Calcutta

students excel in the test.

The major Indian Museology Departments, faculties and students do have collaborative

research and training programmes with museums and universities in India and abroad. Most

of the curricula involves internship and projects in the museums and heritage institutes. Two

4th Semester MSc students from the University of Calcutta completed their three-month

(February to May 2014) internship in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, under the supervision

of the Museum Studies Department of the University of Glasgow. A Memorandum of

Understanding (MoU) was signed between both the Universities in November 2011.

Students and faculty members from the Deakin University, Melbourne, held an International

Field School on Cultural Heritage & Museum Studies in West Bengal in collaboration with

the University of Calcutta from 18th to 29th November 2013. The National Museum Institute

(a deemed university) started a collaborative research project with the University of Leicester

under the UK-India Education & Research Initiative (UKIERI). The Head of the Department

of Museology of the RabindraBharati University researched in the Smithsonian Institute,

Washington DC as a Nehru-Fulbright Fellow. A faculty member of the Department of

Museology of the University of Calcutta offered by the University Grants Commission (UGC)

a highly ambitious project to develop e-Content for Post Graduate Studies in Museology &

Conservation. Museology faculties from the M S University of Baroda and the University of

Calcutta have also been active in international collaborations. Teachers, research fellows

and students of all the Museology departments in India are very active in the Professional

Organisations like the Museums Association of India (MAI) and the International Council of

Museums (ICOM). The Museums Association of UK offered free access to their online

resources to the Museology Department of the University of Calcutta, courtesy the

successful negotiation by the British Council.

Despite the best efforts by the Indian Museology Departments to regularly upgrade their

course contents and faculty improvement, employability of the students in Indian museums

is not very encouraging. While emphasising on the requirement of development of trained

manpower for the museums, the honourable Prime Minister of India, Dr Manmohan Singh, in

his speech, on the occasion of bicentenary celebration of the Indian Museum on 2nd

February 2014, pointed out that “Unfortunately, museology is a woefully neglected field in

our country”. It has been a highly regrettable fact that in India, Museology and Museology

Departments are being exploited either as stepping-stone to fulfil personal ambitions or as

rehabilitation centres for redundant personalities. There must be a clear-cut policy on

Museums and Museology in the highest policy-making levels in the India Government.

Majority of the persons running the Indian museums either belong to the categories of Art

Historians, Anthropologists, Archaeologists, Historians and Ethnologists; or Botanists,

Geologists and Zoologists; or Engineers, Physicists, Chemists and Technologists – all

experts in their respective academic & professional disciplines, but most of them do not have

academic training in Museology, without which it would be highly difficult for such museum

workers to run the Indian museums effectively. There is absolutely no other way out.

1. Introduction

The Genesis of the Museum movement in India is to be traced to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded by William Jones in 1784. However, in early Indian Literature there are references to art galleries (Chitrasalas) – Chitravithi (gallery), Saraswati Bhandars (Libraries) Toshikhana, etc. Mention can be made of the Naradasilpa, a text on architecture, artistic works and methods of display of art objects in a Chitrasala (gallery). These chitrasalas were exhibiting the rows of paintings and other specimens of decorative art in the palaces of kings and nobles where they could relax during the leisure hours. But they are not come under the category of modern museums.

Similarly some of the monuments which have come down to us from the past can at best serve as components of Museums. For instance, the numerous inscriptions of Ashoka recorded on rocks and pillars are a rich store house of information and excellent archival documents. The caves of Ajanta and Ellora with their rich repertories of rock architecture, sculptural embellishment and mural paintings representing both religious and secular themes, creating as it a living atmosphere may be constituted as small local museums today, but as per se at any time in their history.

Mention may be made of the picture galleries of Bagh, rock-cut caves, the architectural remains of stupas, monasteries, temples, palaces, forts, mosques, etc., besides the collections of the manuscripts, miniature paintings, ornaments, works of art & craft, also serve the purpose of museum.

These are however, valuable source of information in India on all aspects of our lives throughout our history and an essential means of education as well. All works of Art provide us with delight and entertainment. However the idea of public service was totally absent in them as they were inaccessible to common man. Those monuments and collections never gained the status of museum that the term museum which has been developed very recently. In fact, the word museum has multiple meanings. The present museum is a method not only to conserve the material evidence but also the collective memory of the

people. The word museum is applicable to all institutions that aim at preservation and promotion of our cultural heritage.

2. The development of Museum – Movement in India

The development of the museums in India is very recent. With regard to the development of Museum-movement in India, there are five major factors which helped the growth of museums and the museum – movement in India.

 Firstly the British Civil Servants in India, who had seen museum movement in their own country, encouraged the Indians with an enthusiastic lead.

 Secondly, the support given by the princely states of India.

 Thirdly the collections of the learned, philanthropic societies were donated to form the nucleus of big museums.

 Fourthly, the emergence of Archaeological Survey of India strengthened the museum movement by opening site museums at a number of excavated sites and

 Lastly, the contribution of Lord Curzon and John Marshall.

The development of Museums in India can be divided into five distinct phases of growth as follows :

 Formative Phase (under Colonial Rulers) 1796 – 1858

 Second Phase (The Victoria era) 1858-1899

 Third Phase (the era of Lord Curzon and John Marshall) 1899-1928

 Fourth Phase (pre Independence era) 1928 – 1947

 Fifth Phase (post Independence era) 1947 - 2017

2.1 Formative Phase (Under Colonial Rulers) 1796-1858

When the British colonized the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century, the European idea of the museum percolated to India. The early phase of the Museums in India began with the endeavors of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded by Sir William Jones, Orientalist and Judge of Supreme court in Calcutta under the patronage of Warren Hastings, the Governor General of India. After seeing the rich cultural heritage of India on 15th Feb, 1784, the Royal Asiatic Society in Calcutta was formed for promoting Oriental research. The purpose of the society was to promote deep and wide knowledge of the country history, culture, religions, geography and natural resources for posterity within the geographical limits of Asia. The intellectuals with antiquarian zeal while assiduously endeavoring Indological research had also collected archaeological, ethnological, geological and zoological objects in large numbers which they donated to the society. A need therefore was felt to house these varied objects at a suitable place for their reception and preservation and it thus spouted the seeds of museums in India

In 1796, the proposal found ready acceptance with the members of the society and it was determined to establish Society Museum at the premises of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Thus India’s first museum was set up at Asiatic Society, 1 Park Street, Calcutta in 1814,

which lit the lamp of the “ Museum movement in India”. The museum was established with two sections  Archaeological and Ethnological

 Geological and Zoological

Nathaniel Wallich, a Danish Botanist was appointed as Honorary Curator of the Oriental Museum of the Asiatic Society. Under his curatorship this museum remained as of natural history objects. The East India Company itself had keen interest in geology and natural wealth of India due to economic factors. In 1840 a museum of Economic Geology was founded by Dr Helfer and other scientific officers in Calcutta and it remained in the premises of the Asiatic society till 1856. In 1837, James Prinsep, secretary of the society proposed for the establishment of a National Museum in India, but he could not receive positive response from the company government. After the establishment of the Indian Museum in Kolkata, many museums originated in different parts of India to house the curiosities.

Indian museum movement also spread to Madras in the first quarter of 19th century. Madras Literary Society was established in the year 1812. The society established museum of economic geology at Madras in 1828. In 1830 it became an Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. The ‘Government Museum and National Art Gallery’ at Madras was set up by the Madras Literary Society in 1851 at the College of Fort St. George; six local museums at Bellary, Cuddalore, Coimbatore, Mangalore, Ootacamund and Rajahmundry were also established at the end of 1856.

These examples set by two above societies proved a great incentive and many more new museums in different parts of the country were opened. The Victoria museum, Karachi (now in Pakistan in the North-west), and Trivandrum Museum in South India were established in 1851 and 1857, respectively. The Victoria and Albert Museum was originally established in 1855 in Mumbai. During this time, the museum was used as a treasure house of the decorative and industrial arts. The construction of the present building was completed in 1871 and the museum was opened in 1872. The museum is presently known as 'Dr. Bhau Daji Lad Museum'. By the year 1857, there were 12 Museums in the whole of the Indian Peninsula.

The museum movement, therefore, progressed very slowly and not as a result of any deliberates educational policy to utilize them for the purpose until many years later. The motivation had, therefore, to be provided by the government of the day or the learned societies, which were burdened with their collections of manuscripts, handicrafts and the like and felt morally responsible for housing and preserving them for posterity.

2.2 Second Phase (The Victoria era) 1858-1899

After the first war of Indian Independence, 1857, the parliament of England took the administration of India from East India Company. So the progress of Indian museum movement was hampered for a short period. But it got a momentum when the Government of India accepted in principle to give all encouragement to build up the History of Indian sub continent. The year 1861 witnessed the establishment of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Alexander Cunning Ham was appointed as the First Director General of Archaeological Survey of India. The tireless efforts of the Director Cunning Ham, led to the discovery of large quantity of Archaeological Materials. These found their way into the nearest extant Provincial Museums or to the Asiatic Society Museum.

By this time the collections of the Oriental Museum of the Asiatic Society in Bengal had become enormous. Therefore the society made another attempt for the creation of an

Imperial Museum in Calcutta with the cost of the state. It was however, in 1866, that the govt. agreed to rename society museum as the Indian Museum, under the newly passed Indian Museum Act of 1866, and left the management to a Board of trustees. This museum was opened to the public on April 1, 1878. It was the first public museum established with varied collections with vivid representation in India with govt. support .

About half a dozen museums grew up during the first two decades of the Second Phase (1858-1878). The Museums at Luknow and Nagpur were established in 1863 and after one year in 1864 Lahore Museum was established. The most remarkable is the Govt. Museum at Mathura (1874) built around the nucleus of large collections of Mathura Sculptures.

Queen Victoria declared that, all the steps should be taken to preserve the vast, vivid, cultural heritage of the country and all the help would be given to build the history of the subcontinent. As a result, the Treasure Trove Act (T.T. Act of 1878) was passed during the reign of Lord Lytton by authorizing the Government to claim the possession of any treasure unearthed that exceeded ten rupees in value.

The Celebration of the Golden and Diamond Jubilee years of Queen Victoria in 1887 and 1897 ushered in a new era of the rise of several new Museums often associated with her name not only in India but also in other parts of British Empire.

During this period, the princely states of India also established number of Museums in their respective principalities as part of the state’s educational and cultural dissemination. The Albert Hall of Jaipur was established in the year 1887. The building itself became an integral part of the display, its Indo-saracenic architecture and stone ornamentation, became a source of reference for varied classical Indian styles of design from Mughal to Rajput. The Albert Hall became a centre for imparting knowledge of history of civilizations, inspiring artisans to improve their skills, and preserving & developing traditional Indian arts, crafts and architectural forms. In the same year Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III set up a museum at Baroda as a centre of Non-formal education. His foresight and taste were responsible for the museum’s unique and varied collection. During the second phase 24 museums were established.

2.3 Third Phase (the era of Lord Curzon and John Marshall) 1899-1928

The dawn of the 20th century was an era of awakening and great reforms. As far as the history of colonial museums in India is concerned, the most important name is Lord Curzon who came to India as Governor General in 1899. He realized the chaotic condition of Indian Archaeology without any central leadership and felt very strongly that the British government in India was doing little for the preservation of cultural heritage of the country. The great impetus for the museum movement in the country was in fact started during the Viceroy of the Lord Curzon when special emphasize was given to the preservation of Art objects and the study of Archaeology. He proposed to the British Government the revival of the post of Director General for supervision the work of the archaeological surveyors. As a result the British Government having accepted the proposals, John Marshall was appointed as the Director General of the reconstituted Archaeological Survey of India in 1902 at the age of twenty six.

With the appointment of John Marshall the conservation and exploration were simultaneously pushed ahead during this phase, Marshall was responsible for setting up a large number of site museums in India under the direct control of the Archaeological Survey of India. Sarnath is the first site museum of the Archaeological Survey of India, created at the place where Lord Buddha delivered his first sermon (Dharma Chakra Pravarthana). In order to preserve the antiquities found from this site, a decision was taken in 1904 by the

Government to construct a site museum adjacent to the excavated site at Sarnath. The building was completed in 1910 to house, display and study the antiquities.

During this phase of Indian museum movement John Marshall exposed for the first time in India well preserved remains of houses, shops and streets, dating back the Mauryan period and recovered valuable antiquities which help us to reconstruct everyday life of the town people of those early days.

With the efforts of Lord Curzon and John Marshall several site museums were established in the places including those at Agra(1906), Delhi fort(1909), Lahore fort, and an excavated sites of Ajmer(1908), Chamba(1909), Jodhpur(1909), Gwalior(1910), Khajuraho(1910), Nalanda(1917), Taxila(1918), Sanchi (1919), Mohenjodaro, Harrapa(1926) and Dhakka (now in Bangladesh) (1931) etc. Thus 1902 onwards a historical movement was already started in building up of both local and site museums encouraged by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Museum movement in India was not only guided by the cultural renaissance of the 19th century, but also by the political awakening of the initial years of the 20th century. Enlightened Indians like Bhau Daji, Pandit Hariprasad Sastri, T.N. Mukharjee, Pandit Radhakrishna, Gangadhar Ganguli, Sarat Chandra Roy, Neilmani Chakravarthi, and D.R. Bhandarkar worked hard to the development of the Indian museums.

The educated Indians also showed great interest in showcasing of industrial arts and their use as educational tools. In 1900, some prominent citizens of Allahabad including Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya and Sir Sunderlal pleaded for opening of an industrial and educational museum at Allahabad together with a Zoological wing.

The museum movement in India was further influenced by the Swadesi movement. The museum movement took a new leap when the learned and research societies commissioned museums in their institutions. Several learned societies such as the Bangiya Sahitya parishad Calcutta (1910), and Bharatiya Itihas Samsodhak Mandal, Pune(1910), Andhra Historical Research Society, Rajamundry (1928) and Rajwade Sanshodhan Mandal Pune (1932) opened the regional heritage museums in their institutions.

Another historical event of the First quarter of 20th century was the visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales to India. In 1905, the people of Bombay decided to set up a museum as a tribute to the visit of the prince of Wales and sir Currimbhoy – Ibrahim and Sir Cowasji Jehangir contributed rupees 300,000 and 50,000 respectively for the grand prince of Wales museum. The museum was completed in 1914 and was handed over to the Board of Trustees in 1921, now called the Chatrapathi Shivaji Maharaj Vasthu Sangrahalaya (CSMVS),

In the year 1911 Dr. J. Ph. Vogel prepared the first Directory of Indian Museums, which gives detailed information relating to each of the museums which were then thirty nine in number.

2.4 Fourth Phase (pre Independence era) 1928 – 1947

During this phase one of the important Museums set up by the Archaeological Survey of India was the Central Asian antiquities museum in 1929 at New Delhi to house the excavated remains gathered by Sir Aurel Stien, a Hungarian officer of the ASI. His reputation rests on three lengthy trips he made between 1900 and 1920 to Chinese Turkestan. He collected and excavated nearly 11,000 art and archaeological objects. It is now part and parcel of the National museum, but constitutes one of the world’s six great collections of Central Asian Antiquities.

Likewise many museums came up under the Aegis of the civic and corporate bodies, the Allahabad Muncipal Museum, Alahabad (1931), Temple committee’s museum at Srirangam (1935), the Asutosh Museum of Fine Arts, university of Calcutta(1937), the Museum movement has made considerable progress upto 1936.

In the year 1936, a grant was offered by the Carnegie Corporation, New York, to make a survey of the Indian museums. The work was entrusted to Markham, M.P. and H. Hargreaves, former Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, who visited all the existing museums in the country and brought out the report on the 105 museums of India, the first standard work of its kind. The report suggested to the government of India to take steps to improve their functioning.

The years of Second World War (1939 – 1945), marked a set back to the Museum movement as to every other activity in general as a global phenomenon. Mean while Mortimer Wheeler was appointed as Director General of ASI (1944-1947) where his research focused on the origins and development of the Indus civilization. With the joining of Mortimer Wheeler the movement of the site museums revived further momentum. He saw the pathetic condition of the museums under the control of ASI and all these was not serving they role effectively. Hence, a separate Museums Branch in ASI was created in 1946 by Mortimer Wheeler under the direct control of the Superintendent of Archaeology.

3. Summary

The modern day Museum concept entered India with the birth of the Asiatic society of Bengal. It was soon turned to the Oriental museum of the Asiatic society in 1814, in fact was the beginning of a significant epoch initiating the socio-cultural and scientific achievements of the country. The princely states, learned and research societies inspired from the earlier European enterprise also joined this movement. Museum movement in India from the mid-nineteenth century until independence in 1947, archaeology in India was strongly tied to British Government Policy. The inception of the Archeological survey of India in 1861 with Alexander Cunningham as its surveyor was a feather in the cap of the Museum movement for Archaeology began receiving attention in museums. The Movement embarked upon a new phase of development during the time of Lord Curzon who had evinced keen interest in the preservation of the archaeological monuments in the country and had established several museums under the stewardship of Sir John Marshall.

Museum movement in India from1947

1. Introduction

India entered into the last phase of museum movement with the attainment of independence in 1947. With the dawn of independence and the partition of the country, the museum’s collections also divided between India and Pakistan. Consequently rich archaeological sites of the Indus and Peshawar region as well as several important museums at Dhaka, Lahore, Mohenjodaro, Peshawar, Rajashahi, Taxila etc; were went to Pakistan. This was a difficult task not only fill up this vacuum but to vitalize the entire museum movement with a view to present a complete picture of Indian History and culture before other nations of the world.

2. Factors Contributed for the progress of Museum movement

In the closing years of the pre-Independent days and two decades that immediately followed, the museum movement escalated to a new height. Several factors contributed for the phenomenal growth of museums in general covering many disciplines and ushering in an era as well as of national museums.

 Firstly, the sweeping contemporary museum movement had a far reaching influence not only on the mind and thought of intellectuals, historians and art connoisseurs but also both the Central and State governments and their agencies.

 Secondly, a variety of Archaeological, Anthropological, Industrial, Science and technological museums sprang up and provided a firm footing for museums in the country.

2.1 Archaeological Survey of India

Mortimer Wheeler’s appointment of Director of Archaeological Survey of India (1944-48) and his priority to recognize museums among his archaeological planning and policies and acceptance of Markham-Hargreaves recommendation of bringing all the museums under a united administrative belt resulted in creating a museum branch in ASI in 1946. He reorganized archaeological circles and museums and trained its officers and outsiders in modern methods in his excavations at Taxila, Arikamedu near Pondicherry on the east coast. Consequently many new museums were found at places like Madras (1948), Amaravati (1951), Hampi (1954), Bodhgaya (1956), Nagarjunakonda (1959), and Halebid (1962). The latest of the archaeological museum is Tipu’s relics at Srirangapatnam.

Among the museums established in the sub- continent, the archaeological and art museums enjoyed a prominent place in the museum movement in India. The prominent art galleries are..

 National gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi is devoted to the contemporary art of India.

 The Art Gallery, Trivandrum possesses a excellent collection of Indian and European miniature painting.

 The Art Gallery, Mysore, has a collection of modern Indian paintings.

 The National Art Gallery, Madras

 State Lalitkala academies

 The State Archaeological Museum at Hyderabad represents excellent collection of Ajanta replicas, European Paintings and the Hindu, Buddhist, Jaina Art specimens enriched the collection.

2.2 Museums Association of India (MAI)

Meanwhile, certain other developments had strengthened the museum movement. The Museums Association of India has played tremendous role in various museographic services in its inception in 1944. The MAI is a registered Society having countries well known museologists, historians, conservators, anthropologists, archaeologists, working curators, research scholars and museum activists.

It provided the Museum profession in general with a forum for the exchange of views, news and ideas and its annual discussion on specific topics enabled to highlight the nagging problems and offer as well as invite suggestion for their solution. The annual journal of the Museums Association of India (MAI) also filled a large lacuna for the benefit of the museum professional.

2.3 International Council of Museums (ICOM)

At the international level also many changes were taking place after the Second World War. UNESCO came into existence with its Head Quarters in Paris’ 1946, and constituted the International Council of Museum (ICOM) in the same year. ICOM is an organisation created in 1946 for museum professionals. It has a unique network of more than 35,000 members and museum professionals who represent the global museum community. The General Assembly is a decision-making organ that meets every year. It sets the functioning rules and adopts ICOM’s

Strategic Plan every three years at the General Conference. With the establishment of ICOM (Paris Head Quarters), the museum – movement has witnessed unparalleled growth.

2.4 Central Advisory Board of Museums (CABM)

A Central Advisory Board of Museums (CABM) was established by the Ministry of Education, Government of India in 1956, for surveying the progress of the museums in India and professional help in many ways. It provided funds for museum buildings, improvement of exhibitions, storage, publication etc. The Ministry of Education and Culture also held Museum Camps every year in different places of different subjects.

3. National Museums

The concept of the national museums emerged and gained momentum from 1947. After Independence, the leaders started searching for a museum that would enshrine the free country’s vast heritage and give her a national identity; this resulted in the establishment of the National Museum. The national museum made its appearance in New Delhi (1949) and soon the status of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad were elevated to National museums.

3.1 National Museum, New Delhi

The story of the birth of the National Museum, New Delhi began with an exhibition of Indian Art, consisting variety of art specimens from various museums of India, sponsored by the Royal Academy, London, with the co-operation of the Government of India and Britain. It was on display in the galleries of Burlington House, London in 1947-48. On its return to India, it was decided by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to display the same collection under a single roof in Delhi. Accordingly, the exhibition was held in the State Rooms of the Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi in 1949, which turned out to be a great success. In turn, the event eventually proved for the creation of the National Museum at New Delhi. On the 15th August, 1949, the National Museum was inaugurated by then Governor-General of India Sri C. Rajagopalachari. The museum is planned that the objects of the archaeology and arts of other countries may eventually be represented here. This was indeed an event of great significance in the history of museums in India. A. Ghosh, the Director General of ASI (1953-1968) was responsible for setting up of the National Museum in its incipient stages, contributing its nuclear archaeological and sculptural collection and building it up with men and materials, equipments and objects, besides academic and technical expertise and dedication. The foundation of the present museum building was laid by Nehru, on 12 may 1955. The museum was thrown open to public on 18th December, 1960. And it is now within the Administrative control of the Department of Culture, Government of India.

3.2 The Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad

This museum was taken over by the Government of India in 1958 and later it was declared as a museum of National importance by an Act of parliament in the year 1961. It is an art museum, international in character from different parts of the world objects, nearly 48 thousand art objects collected by a single gentleman Nawab Yousuf Alikhan, popularly known as Salar Jung III. These precious invaluable collections of art objects were gifted to the Government of India by Salar Jung III. Besides the rich treasure of Art, the museum also houses a rich library containing in about 10, 000 rare manuscripts and about 5000 printed books. The museum is presently administrated by the Salar Jung Museum Board appointed by the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.

Since, there was a vibrant museum movement across the country and variety of Museums were established under the aegis of the central and state governments, universities, public and private societies.

The growing appreciation of culture, tourism, international exhibitions and promotional campaigns have provided to museum movement in India. There have been grown several kinds of museums such as archaeology, history, natural science, art, architecture, maritime, textiles, rail and science and industrial museums throughout India.

4. Growth of Science, Technology and Industrial Museum

The last seventy years have been significant for the growth of museums in India. Today India has around 1500 museums of National and regional importance with different themes. Though art and archaeological museums have dominated the museum scene in India for a long time, ever since its inception, it is the Science and technology museums that have stolen lead, because of the larger scope. Owing to the rapid growth of the technology and Industry, the latest types, which have been developed recently, are the pure and applied sciences, technology and industry museum.

There is no Science museum in India till 1954, when the Birla Technological Institute set up a science museum at Pilani (Rajasthan). The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research set up first science museum, namely, Birla Industrial and Technological Museum, Calcutta in 1956. Later setup Science and Technology museums at Bangalore, Bombay and Patna.

Natural History collection which formed only sections of large general museums until 1972, independent National Museums of Natural History (NMNH) began under the department of Science and Technology, New Delhi. The NMNH owes its genesis to Smt. Indira Gandhi, the former Prime Minister, who while considering new projects to be initiated in 1972 on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of India's Independence, decided that the country needs a Museum of Natural History to depict its flora, fauna and mineral wealth to provide an out of school facility for education of children and to promote environmental awareness among the masses. The NMNH opened its doors to the public in a rented building in Mandi house on 5th June 1978, coinciding symbolically with the World Environment Day.

From a single Museum located in New Delhi, the NMNH has extended its geographical range by establishing Regional Museums of Natural History (RMNH) in many parts of the Country such as Southern Region (Mysore), Central Region (Bhopal) and Eastern Region (Bhubaneswar). Two more Museums are being established in Western Region (Sawai Madhopur) and North-Eastern Region (Gangtok).

The Science and Technological Museums are now under the National Council of Science Museums constituted by the Ministry of Human Resource Development in 1978 under the overall supervision and control of a Director General.

National Council of Science Museums is the unique organization operating in the Science and Technology, landscape of the country and engaged in developing scientific temper in the society through its fast - growing nationwide network of science centers, interactive and engaging science activities. It established 48 Science Museums / Centers / Science Cities & 2 Centers outside India so far. All these progress marks a signal development in the field of Museums in India.

5. Growth of other museums

Besides, the museums devoted to specific subjects have also been developed to carry out their educational programmes in different fields of human knowledge

Ex;

 Craft Museum, New Delhi,

 Health Museum, Hyderabad,

 Calico Textile Museum, Ahmadabad,

 A museum of man devoted to anthropology in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

 Rail transport museum, Delhi

 Postal museum , Delhi

 Forest museum, Dehradun

 Army museum

The History and personalia museums apart from Archaeological are very few and recent growth. The Victoria memorial museum, Calcutta; Rabindranath Tagore museum, Santhiniketan; the Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya, New Delhi; the Nehru memorial at Teen Murti Bhavan ,New Delhi; the St George fort museum, Madras etc; illustrate this type of museums

6. Universities in Museum Movement

In the post independence era to train the museological methods the universities of Baroda introduced a two year Post Graduation course in Museology in 1952 for professional purposes and the University of Calcutta and Varanasi (BHU) and the Technological Institute at Pilani followed with the courses of Museology.

The Aligarh Muslim University and Birla Museum at Bhopal also introduced Diploma courses..

In recent years the UGC too has come forth with liberal grants for the development of Museum of the Teaching departments of the universities as well the full-fledged multipurpose university museums such as the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi and the Ausutosh Museum of Indian Art, Calcutta, Dr. N.K Shahu Museum, Dept of History, Sambalpur university, Deccan College Pune, etc. This has indeed been some help to the museum movement and its profession.

7. Private Museums

In the last Five decades, we have seen that museums have become an intrinsic part of India’s urban life. In the 80s, they became widely accepted by all sections of the Indian populace. Soon museums, now mainly private initiatives, were constructed across the country with region-specific collections. The main objective was to display, preserve and document the rich cultural heritage of the entire county, now free from colonial rule, including the conservation and protection of the handlooms, handicrafts, art and palatial treasures, as well as folk and ethnographic artifacts of the region in which the museums are based. Udaipur’s City Palace Museum, set up in 1969 by Maharana Bhagwat Singh of Mewar, was one such museum.

The other important private museums in the country that were founded on the basis of private collections include the Gurusaday Dutt Museum (Calcutta), the Raja Dinkar Kelkar Museum (Pune), the Vechaar Utensils Museum (Ahmedabad), the Sulabh International Museum of Toilets (New Delhi), and the Kiran Nadar Museum of Art (New Delhi).

Through the majority of the museum’s collection oriented, but some of them have adopted holistic approach for preservation and representation of cultural heritage. Keeping in mind the changing dimensions of the post-modern museums, the Museums Association of India is keen about adopting a few heritage sites and developing them as museums.

8. Preservation Activity

Museum objects by and large are bedeviled by the problem of preservation against the ravages of time, climate vagaries, vandalism and numerous other causes. It was with this purpose that government of India began strengthening the conservation laboratory of the National museum New Delhi. In 1971 it was formally recognized as an authorized centre for the training of conservation professional in the country. Government of India set up in 1976 an independent national research laboratory for the conservation of cultural property, research and training. This was another landmark in the museum movement.

9. Summary

The museum movement in India, from its birth, owes a lot to the hard work of visionary individuals, both Indians and foreigners. These individuals fought against adversities, lack of funding and infrastructure, proper conservation, display or research facilities but went on to create and uphold some of the most important cultural institutions of the world in India.

The museum movement in India has exhibited an all-round growth after Independence. The museums of various types covering almost all important aspects of human knowledge have come up with an idea to preserve our cultural heritage and promote better understanding of the same. These museums are now considered as the living institutions to serve and educate the communities. As a result of the interaction of all the factors discussed above museums in India are much better placed than ever before. A consideration of the development of museum from stage to stage would itself provide an index of the rationale of the phenomenal achievement.